MAGICALLY "LEARN" STUDENTS' NAMES IN MINUTES

Ανακτήθηκε από http://honolulu.hawaii.edu
By Doug Madden
Honolulu Community College. Printed with permission, August 26, 1999.

Years ago when I was an undergraduate student at the University of Miami, I had a speech teacher who amazed me, as well as I'm sure the entire class, with his extraordinary recall and ability to memorize things almost instantly. I think most of my impression was based on his having "learned" the names of all 25 or so students in just a few minutes. Much more recently, though, when I took a non-credit class in magic tricks, I realized he had probably fooled everyone in the class. Remembering how he demonstrated his purported skill, I now think he used a simple old trick known as "pushing a card," a magic trick usually performed with playing cards.
What the instructor did was have everyone print his or her name, major, home city and state, and special personal interest (or something like these things) on a 3x5 card. He then collected the cards row by row, laid them out in order on his desk, took just a couple of minutes to "appear" to be connecting the information on the cards to the students' faces or something, then neatly gathered the cards together by row, each row into a small pile. He ...

then placed the piles upside down one on top of another so that the last row was on the bottom of the stack and the first row was on the top. One exception: I don't actually remember him having done this, but I'd guess he looked especially hard at the card of the first person in the first row and made sure that that card ended up out of place on the bottom of the stack.

He then proceeded to recall the names supposedly from memory. In doing so he essentially introduced the students one by one. From having looked at the first person's card before he placed it at the bottom of the stack, he was able to correctly introduce the first person. He then turned over the top card of the stack, looked at it, and confirmed that he'd been correct. Remember that he'd previously placed the card of the first person on the bottom of the stack, so he was really looking at the card of the second person.

When he went on to the second person, of course he knew the person's name because he'd just looked at that person's card (in pretending to be confirming the first person's name). He went through the entire class like this, always one card ahead of the one he was pretending to be reading to confirm a name. Occasionally he'd pretend to have a little difficulty, but in the end he always came up with the correct name. Just as amazing (so I thought at the time) was his ability to "recall" where a person was from, what a person's major was, etc. Interesting, huh?

Would I recommend this first day activity to other instructors? Done as I THINK my own instructor did it years ago, I think it'd be a fairly clear case of misrepresentation, and I would not recommend that. But with probably a group of students I already knew and with a clear explanation at the end that it was really a trick, it could be fun -- and it might serve a good purpose. The objective ought to be a novel way of introducing students and could include opportunities for students to add to their introductions and respond to other student or instructor questions. When at the end it's revealed to be only a trick, it could also provide a light or humorous break in the normal tension of a first day. And of course the instructor ends up with the cards to use for other purposes later. Student interest in how the trick was done might also valuably promote first day involvement and interaction of students. The activity is offered here, however, only as a possibility or idea, not as a recommendation and probably not for everyone.
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To εγχειρίδιο στα ελληνικά για το εκπαιδευτικό λογισμικό Scratch είναι από το
ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ ΑΙΓΑΙΟΥ, ΤΕΠΑΕΣ, ΕΡΓΑΣΤΗΡΙΟ ΔΙΔΑΚΤΙΚΗΣ ΜΗΧΑΝΙΚΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΕΚΠΑΙΔΕΥΤΙΚΗΣ ΤΕΧΝΟΛΟΓΙΑΣ.
Στο 4o Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Διδακτική της Πληροφορικής, Πάτρα 28-30 Μαρτίου 2008
Πανεπιστήμιο Πατρών & ΕΤΠΕ Επιμορφωτική Συνεδρία:
Γνωριμία με το εκπαιδευτικό περιβάλλον προγραμματισμού SCRATCH
Γ. Φεσάκης, Α. Δημητρακοπούλου, Κ. Σεραφείμ, Α. Ζαφειροπούλου, Μ. Ντούνη, Β. Τούκα
ΟΔΗΓΟΣ ΤΟΥ SCRATCH
Μετάφραση από το πρωτότυπο: Reference Guide
http://scratch.wik.is/@api/deki/files/19/=ScratchReferenceGuide.pdf
Ρόδος, ΦΕΒ 2008
...

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Πηγή Ανάκτησης:
kserafeim
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Distance Education Opportunities for Mature Women in Greece and Cyprus: Comparative Perspectives and Implications

Των Marios Vryonides, European University Cyprus και Michalinos Zembylas, Open University of Cyprus

Greek Abstract

Η εισαγωγή προγραμμάτων εξ αποστάσεως και ηλεκτρονικής μάθησης στην Ελληνική και Κυπριακή ανώτατη εκπαίδευση τα τελευταία χρόνια συνοδεύτηκε από παράλληλες ρητορικές οι οποίες επικεντρώνονται στην αναγκαιότητα προσφοράς ευέλικτων ευκαιριών μάθησης σε ομάδες ενήλικων φοιτητών που πολλές φορές βρίσκονται στα όρια κοινωνικής περιθωριοποίησης. Σε αυτό το άρθρο επιχειρούμε να συγκρίνουμε τις εμπειρίες και τις αντιλήψεις ενηλίκων επαγγελματιών γυναικών που συμμετείχαν σε δύο πρωτοποριακά μεταπτυχιακά προγράμματα στο Πανεπιστήμιο Αιγαίου και στο Ανοιχτό Πανεπιστήμιο Κύπρου. Τα εμπειρικά δεδομένα συγκεντρώθηκαν με δύο τρόπους: μέσα από συνεντεύξεις βάθους με δύο ομάδες μεταπτυχιακών φοιτητριών από τα δύο πανεπιστημιακά ιδρύματα και με ημι-δομημένα ημερολόγια. Στα ημερολόγια οι μεταπτυχιακές φοιτήτριες είχαν κληθεί να καταγράφουν συστηματικά τη συναισθηματική τους κατάσταση και τις εναλλαγές που ...

παρουσιάζονταν κατά τη διάρκεια των σπουδών τους. Τα αποτελέσματα της ποιοτικής ανάλυσης των δεδομένων που συγκεντρώθηκαν υποδεικνύουν ότι στο χώρο της εκπαίδευσης ενηλίκων οι έννοιες 'δια βίου εκπαίδευση' και 'εκδημοκρατισμός της εκπαίδευσης' θα πρέπει να τύχουν περαιτέρω εξέτασης από φορείς εκπαιδευτικής πολιτικής. Και αυτό γιατί, όπως εφαρμόζονται τώρα, είναι δυνατό να αποτελέσουν πεδίο εμφάνισης νέων κοινωνικών ανισοτήτων, ειδικά όταν δεν συνοδεύονται από πολιτικές κοινωνικής στήριξης ευάλωτων ομάδων. Οι γυναίκες με πολλαπλούς και συγκρουόμενους κοινωνικούς ρόλους αποτελούν μια τέτοια ομάδα και για να γίνει πραγματικότητα η ισότιμη συμμετοχή τους σε καινοτόμες μορφές εκπαίδευσης απαιτείται η προσαρμογή των υπαρχόντων αναλυτικών προγραμμάτων και η εισαγωγή πολιτικών κοινωνικής και άλλης στήριξης τους.

Introduction

The introduction of distance and e-learning education programs in the Greek and Cypriot higher education systems in the past few years has often been accompanied by parallel rhetoric. This rhetoric evolves and focuses primarily around the need for the state to offer flexible educational provisions to groups of mature students who would otherwise be at the risk of social marginalization or even exclusion. Marginalization is the result of social processes that require new and a constantly updated body of knowledge and skills to adapt in a social environment that is changing day by day and transforms the fundamental conditions of our social existence (Grummell, 2007). Often, perhaps not surprisingly, the rhetoric of equality of opportunity and social inclusion may inadvertently contribute to further marginalization of some social groups. Good intentions are rarely 'good' enough.

Our goal in this paper is to focus on the complex ways in which the rhetoric of opportunity and social inclusion is materialized in two innovative educational programs—one at the University of the Aegean in Greece and the other at the Open University of Cyprus. We will attempt to engage in a comparative study of the social contexts within which these two programs have been introduced in the past three years, evaluate the current state of their implementation, and analyze whether they actually fulfil the rhetoric of their introduction. The focus of our comparison is on the perceptions of mature professional women who at the time of their study have to accommodate multiple and often conflicting social roles with expectations stemming from traditional ideologies which place women within the private rather than the public social sphere. We want to explore, then, how exactly these women experience the rhetoric of adult education in their societies.

One thing should be noted from the start. The realization of the basic aim of these programs is made possible with the extensive use of modern ICT innovations which allow for breaking away from space and time constraints (Keegan, 2001). One factor, however, remains always at the fore of many scholars and researchers—the authors of this paper amongst them—who approach and study these developments with a critical view in order to theorize their implications for effectively tackling issues of contemporary social inequalities. And this refers to the students themselves and the conditions within which they are carrying out their studies in order to take advantage of the opportunities on offer. This is precisely why we focus on mature professional women that from the start emerged as an extremely interesting group for the purposes of assessing the effectiveness of the two aforementioned programs.

Theoretical Perspectives

Lifelong learning and democratization of education are now important components of educational policy at international bodies such as UNESCO, OECD and the European Union. The field of adult education has witnessed growing demands for equal opportunities and democratization of education in the last thirty years. These demands require the extension of educational opportunities to adult learners who are non-traditional students, by stressing the importance of offering new forms of education. These new forms of education arising in recent years are raising significant challenges to traditional definitions of learning, knowledge, and the role of the adult learners. Concerns related to an emphasis on productivity, the dynamics of continual change, and the emerging social and professional roles of individuals are some of the resulting challenges.

In theory, these changes are transforming the production, validation and communication of knowledge, and are re-conceptualizing the meaning of learning (Lyotard 1984; Usher & Edwards 1994); thus 'lifelong learning' has become the new trend. In practice, these changes have been enacted through a variety of new interventions such as modularization; pre-packaged open and distance education opportunities; increased emphasis on professional practice and the deployment of notions such as the 'reflective practitioner' (Sch�n 1983); new modes of assessment such as portfolio development and performance-based assessment; and, the pursuit of 'relevance' in learning through the tailoring of programs to individuals' needs (see Harris, 2000).

On the one hand, one may point out that there is in process a destabilization or subversion of traditional academic practices, a new 'politics of learning' (Usher & Solomon, 1999) in which more opportunities are created for all. On the other hand, such changes may also signify a 'myth' in the sense that neoliberal demands for knowledge 'adapt' these opportunities for particular economic and political purposes such as self-regulation and increased productivity (Zembylas, 2006). Not surprisingly, these complexities become more evident when one considers the emerging economic, social and gender roles for adult learners.

In particular, the decision of mature women to enter or return to higher education is not a decision easily taken. As Johnson and Robson (1999) remark, this decision is often "depicted in the literature on mature women students as a time of change which has psychological consequences" (p.274). Pascall and Cox (1993) and Edwards (1993) highlight the issue of 'identity' pointing to contradictions and discontinuities in mature women's identity when they become students. And this happens because often this identity has to fit with pre-existing social roles and commitments. One of the most important paramount issues in this process is managing time amidst conflicting responsibilities as women returning to higher education struggle to balance themselves between the public and private spheres, generally resulting in anxieties and tensions. In their study Davies et al. (2002) reported that the decision of mature students (of both sexes) to enter higher education is a complex one. In particular, they highlighted the barriers that made life difficult for this group of students. Barriers were linked to the realities of mature students' lives: a multiplicity of roles, costs of study, the importance and value attached to caring responsibilities, and time management problems. Similarly, Reay (2002) argues that in their effort to make the transition to higher education, mature students face constraints of class, gender, ethnicity and marital status. Focusing specifically on mature working class women Reay (2003) illustrates vividly that in making the decision to pursue higher education mature women were juggling extensive working commitments or childcare and domestic responsibilities with studying. Moss (2004) has also shown that once women entered higher education the whole experience is an ongoing struggle to create time and space for studying. This in the end has serious consequences for issues relating to widening access and participation to higher education for mature women, something that is of primary concern to the authors of this paper.

Issues of mature women's participation in higher education in societies such as Greece and Cyprus, become a sociological conundrum given the position of women in most areas of social life (i.e. family, education and labour force). This connects to the current state of gender relations in both societies and the chances brought about by society's move towards modernization. Green and Vryonides (2005) argue that when such a change occurs in a space of just three generations where by societies transform from pre-modern traditional societies to societies that exhibits many characteristics found in developed Western societies, contradictions are inevitable. And this is so because as Green and Vryonides (2005) contend modernization is not a linear development replicating a simplistic and idealized model of Western social, political and economic transformation. Rather, what actually happens is that numerous features of pre-modern attitudes and practices co-exist with modern ones and are sources of social tensions. For example it has often been reported that in Greece the 'traditional' division of labour within the home has not essentially changed, even when women in large proportions have entered the labour market (Maratou-Alipranti, 1995; Cavounidis, 1996; Mousourou, 2003). As a result, for most women fulfilling familial responsibilities while working full-time is a subsequent burden in terms of time and energy spent. This in turn has serious consequences for their choice to pursuit educational opportunities.

The Social Context and the Post-Graduate Study Programs

Greece

The University of the Aegean, Greece is a unique institution of higher education in Greece and possibly Europe. Its distinctiveness lies in the fact that it is located in five islands of the Aegean Sea with each island hosting one of the five Schools. Its foundation in the early 1980's was part of the Greek government's policy for regional development. One of the challenges that the university faces is to try and offer competitive programmes and innovative educational "products" in order to attract students from the various parts of Greece. In that framework during the academic year 2004-5, a new post-graduate program entitled 'Gender and the New Educational and Employment Environments of the Information Age', was launched by the University of the Aegean, Greece, within the context of promoting and implementing European Union policies on new educational structures as well as on gender equality under the Operational Programme for Education and Initial Vocational Training (OPEIVT). This programme was particularly designed to address the academic and professional needs of groups of professionals who otherwise would have been marginalized (socially and geographically) in terms of accessing further personal and professional development. The courses of the programme are delivered by means of new educational technologies of distance learning (through an e-learning educational platform) allowing participants to remain at their homes with their families and other professional commitments (Vryonides et al, 2006). The programme is quite distinctive from other programs offered in Greece, in a number of aspects: (i) It is multi-thematic, as it is comprised of modules that focus on new forms of education, new forms of employment and new technologies in the new information age, as autonomous study units but also as they are all related to diachronic as well as newly emerging forms of gender inequality. (ii) The modules are interdisciplinary, drawing upon diverse social science disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, etc. (iii) Each module is co-taught by an average of three experts from these various disciplines, but most importantly, (iv) the courses are taught by means of an e-learning setting (e-distribution, e-interaction, e-collaboration, Weber & Ribold 2005), combined with "live", on-campus seminars and workshops.

In the first academic year that the programme was launched (September 2004), 40 students were admitted in the course (29 women and 11 men) following a selection process that dealt with over a 150 applications. In the two subsequent years the programme proved to be quite popular and successful as each year the selection committee dealt with around 180 applications for the 40 available positions. Most of the people admitted are usually employed as full-time professionals in education, public service, IT and engineering sectors. Their age range varies from 25 to 50 and they reside at different areas of the country (urban, rural, islands, etc.). The majority of them at the time of their enrolment in the programme normally have no experience of distance learning procedures or of e-learning processes. Hence, for most of them, this program is their first attempt to participate in alternative forms of education.

Cyprus

The Open University of Cyprus was founded in 2003 and accepted its first students in 2006. It is the first university in Cyprus that offers degrees through open and distance learning. Part of the reason for the establishment of an open university in Cyprus had to do with the government's efforts to respond to the increased demands for lifelong learning and continuing education. The Open University of Cyprus currently runs four programs, mainly at the postgraduate level; its postgraduate program in Educational Studies is the most popular program with almost 1500 individuals applying for 120 positions in 2007.

The postgraduate program in Educational Studies is different from any other graduate programs offered in Cyprus in two major aspects: (i) The modules are year-long ones, multidisciplinary and tailored to the form and specifications of distance learning; (ii) the courses are taught electronically, blended with face-to-face seminars (once every six weeks). The program is tailored to experienced teachers (primary and secondary) who are employed as full-time professionals in education and thus there is a great demand for its perceived convenience. The process of selection is very competitive and is based on an application process that asks for information related to years of teaching experience, first degree grade point average, relevance of present job with education, an essay on prospective plans, knowledge of foreign languages, knowledge of computers and social service. The applicants' responses are assigned points (everything is done electronically except the essay) and then the overall score is put in order; depending on the available positions the students who accumulate the highest points are selected.

In the first academic year that the programme was launched (September 2006) 100 students were admitted in Educational Studies (80 women and 20 men); their age range was between 25 and 53 years old. The participating students resided at different parts of Cyprus (both rural and urban); 20% of the students came from Greece. The majority of them had no experience on distance or online learning process. As part of the present investigation it had been confirmed that for most students saw this program as the only opportunity they had for graduate education because of its convenience.

Methodology

Research Questions

The research questions that guided this study had been developed from the reviewed literature and addressed the emotional experiences of women who had taken an online course in the above two programs: The questions posed then are: (1) How do mature women students feel about their participation in these new forms of education? (2) Do distance education programs really offer opportunities for women to break out of their other responsibilities during their participation in these programs?

Data Collection

For the purpose of this study, the participants in both programs were asked to reflect on their first-year experiences through in-depth interviews and diaries. The focus of interviews and diaries was on examining how the two distance education programs addressed, if at all, the concerns raised here. Specifically, we conducted semi-structured interviews with eight female students from each program (one interview at the beginning of the program and one at the end). The purpose of the interviews was to find out about women's emotional experiences in balancing different social roles and commitments while studying. The interview questions emerged either directly from the research questions or from findings of our previous research (Vryonides, Vitsilakis & Efthymiou, 2006). All the interviews were approximately one hour in length, were recorded and transcribed.

The diaries were completed once a month (October-April) and focused on women's emotional experiences during the month, as these experiences were relevant to the new forms of their learning. The participants also wrote a final report in May of 2007 in which they reflected on their emotional experiences as a whole. These diaries were kept electronically and sent to the instructor on the last day of each month. The diaries were valuable in documenting the social-emotional context of the distance learning course as well as the women's emotional journey throughout the year. Despite the limitations of diaries in their reliance on self-report, the personal nature of this source brought attention to areas of their emotional experiences that were not evident from 'traditional' sources, such as individual/group assignments or emails.

Data Analysis

All phases of data analysis were grounded in the theoretical perspectives of this study. For example, we constantly looked for evidence that showed women's efforts to make sense of their emotional experiences and the struggles to respond to their multiple commitments. The theoretical perspectives were particularly helpful in allowing multiple interpretations of incoming data as an ongoing part of the data collection process, because attention was paid to contextualizing the ways in which women's emotional experiences were constituted within the social terrain in which they had been studying.

To ensure validity, we worked separately and collaboratively, using an interpretive method of coding (Erickson, 1986) to ascertain confirming and disconfirming evidence of assertions arising from data sources. We independently read and coded all the data following the open-coding techniques outlined by Strauss and Corbin (1998). For triangulation purposes the diaries were also coded and analyzed with the help of an independent researcher. All the texts were examined looking for evidence of women's emotional experiences in relation to their participation in the program. Building on this analysis, we interpreted the data by developing themes, categories and tentative hypotheses. The themes that were developed in our analyses were explored in greater depth and were put into broader categories. The overarching themes and categories began to illustrate various aspects of the research questions we posed. This analysis narrowed down the categories down into the following two: Positive feelings about the program; Struggles to balance multiple roles and responsibilities. These categories were used as the basis of the development of our analysis and discussion presented here.

Findings

Case 1: Greece

Positive feelings about the program: The first feelings women had about returning to an organized educational process were that of excitement and enthusiasm. Many saw their participation in the distance learning program as an opportunity they were long seeking to renew themselves, personally and academically, without a major upset in their lives. There was also an element of excitement for participating in a novel –for Greece- e-learning program. This excitement was retained for a short while once they got actively involved in the actual educational procedure, as they found the e-learning platform effective and user friendly. As we will see later on it after some time things started to appear as problematic. So, at the beginning this is how some women described their participation in the program.

I really needed this at this stage in my life … some kind of renewal and repositioning my priorities … I feel that by doing this I will get a new meaning in my personal quest, I will gain new motives and move on to other things. (Primary head teacher, 45 years old)

After so many years getting the student ID in my hands made me feel a strange feeling of achievement … even though some of my friends laughed when they saw it …. (Secondary school teacher, 36 years old)

I am so happy and excited about this… and the feelings gets so much stronger when I see people like myself doing a similar thing. (Primary teacher, 43 years old)

This fulfils life long aspirations to get more education … Basically it was made possible because of the way the programme is delivered … the d-learning mode allows me to tend to my existing responsibilities (familial, professional, social). I could not do it otherwise… and this makes feel very happy. (Social worker, 34 years old)

Any other mode of delivery would have made it impossible for me to participate as I am limited by my familial and social responsibilities … as well as the fact that I live in an island… (Nursery school teacher, 38 years old)

The positive feeling extended to other aspects of the program as well. For example some students commented on their anticipation to be part of a community of people with similar social characteristics. The extract below is one that captures that feeling very vividly.

I've read all the entries students made on the e-board [one which asked students to present themselves to the others] I am so excited to be part of an "e-group" with such a positive attitude, appetite for learning and humour… Technology has done its miracle bringing all of us together … I am so anxious to start … I feel like a school girl … at the end of the day each grownup has a child in them. (Primary teacher, 40 years old)

There were also positive comments about students becoming experts in ICTs because of the extended use during the course or becoming fluent in the English language. It has to be pointed out that a large chunk of the e-material of the course was offered in English as there is very limited literature on the content of the course in the Greek language.

It wouldn't surprise me if we all become "stars" in the English language after we study so many sources and material in English … another positive outcome of participating in the course. (Social worker, 34 years old)

Struggles to balance multiple roles and responsibilities. However, once the "real" courses came on line, "reality hit" the students. Many of them began to express shock, as they felt swamped by "too many texts to read" and "too many activities to participate in". The technology-mediated access to the learning procedures which at first appeared "a game", came to present itself as an additional burden, especially to the less experienced students. It soon became clear that students had to develop personal strategies to deal with the problems which arose. The first major problem was that of managing the heavy work load, and at the same time meeting the fixed deadlines for handing in assignments or completing other activities. Most of them ended up covering only material which was necessary for the assignments, but they expressed serious concern about missing out on important material that they did not have the time to go through "properly".

I try my best to respond in the best possible way to the demands of this particular program. I want to participate in everything that goes on but unfortunately it is not humanly possible … Time shortage does not allow me to do that. (Secondary teacher, 35 years old)

Another strategy was to structure their day in such a way so as to fit the demands of the program. However, any attempt to construct a typical day out of our respondents' narratives would most probably not accurately capture the actual details of particular cases. In a day which usually started as early as 5 o'clock in the morning and frequently ended up in front of a computer screen in the early hours of the next day, these women tried to attend to their familial and professional responsibilities and respond to the on-going activities, assignments etc. from their courses. During the day and depending on the children's age they needed to tend to different responsibilities: from taking and picking up toddlers to and from nursing schools, to assuming the role of a chauffeur driving teenagers to private lessons in the afternoon. For some women this was a strenuous activity on top of everything else, particularly because the burden was not equally shared with their husbands. It soon became evident to all of them that studying from home was not a 'convenient' way to pursue postgraduate studies as they might have originally thought. For many this raised concerns for their ability to balance themselves between their diverse obligations. Thus, each day was a continuous struggle to find time and space to engage with their studies. The comment below is typical of many of the answers our respondents gave:

For us [women students] time for studying is a luxury… Everything else needs to come first and we have to wait until everybody goes to bed … for things to settle at home in terms of noise and then to switch on the computer. It is funny but when I talk with my male fellow-students they never seem to be mentioning things such as home, children, housework… whereas for us it is a common topic of discussion. (Secondary school teacher, age 40)

As these women were working while studying for their courses, they were simultaneously trying to accommodate various obligations and other people's needs struggling to respond to the requirements of what all of them described as 'a very demanding course'. Frequently, this was resulting in an unmanageable task. At best it was loading them with frustration, depriving them of sleep and affecting what many regarded as their very personality and self-esteem. The remarks below are worthy of note at this point:

Even though my children appear to be happy with what I am doing they, on one occasion one said to me "Mama, you love your computer more that you love us…" There are moments when I get filled with guilt because my children need me and I wonder if I am steeling the time that is rightfully theirs. (Primary school teacher, age 40)

Two other participants also give vivid answers about the things that they had to 'sacrifice' for their studies:

Three things fell 'victims' to my studies: Sleep, time for myself and housework… my house seems to be constantly in a mess … but not my child …never. (NGO worker, age 36)

I don't seem to get any free time either in the day or at night … time seems to evaporate so quickly …and there are instances when I feel that I am loosing myself in all these… I realise that I am constantly neglecting myself amidst all the things that I am doing. (Secondary school teacher, age 40)

The above comment seems to be in line with what Davies (1990) wrote a decade and a half ago that 'space and time to study are both socially and personally constructed out of others' time and time for other things' (Davies, 1990). Similarly, Moss (2004, p. 299) reveals that for women 'personal space and time for higher education has to be carved from space and time for other things and from space and time that is often in the control of other people'.

Case 2: Cyprus

Positive feelings about the program. At the beginning, the successful acceptance at the Open University of Cyprus made many students feel joy, pride and a sense of accomplishment. Their success offered them the opportunity to fulfil their dream for postgraduate studies—a dream that had been inconceivable until recently. As far as the methodology of distance learning was concerned, and despite initial feelings of uncertainty, the students revealed feelings of relief since the program required no physical presence. The nature of distance learning methodology created positive expectations, especially for the female students who pointed out that they would be able to combine family responsibilities and student obligations. The excerpt below is taken out of the first diary:

I feel an immense relief due to the fact that distance learning requires no physical presence. This is an important advantage of the program, because I don't have to spend many hours driving to and from the university […]. At the same time, I appreciate the fact that I can study in my own private space, at the time I choose, while I can still be with my family when I take a break. I feel empowered that I can cope with both my student and family life. (Primary school teacher, 38 years old)

During the second month of the program, the students were given their first assignment. During the research and writing process, many students made comments on the convenience of using the Internet from home. In an interview, Kris pointed out:

To my great surprise, I realized that it was very convenient to do your work from the comfort of your home! Without even moving from your computer screen! […] The use of the internet in education can offer many advantages, particularly for those who work and do not have the time to go to the library. (Primary school teacher, 35 years old)

In the following months, students seemed to become more familiar with the distance learning methodology. As a result, the communication among the students and the instructor became more frequent. Many students wrote in their diaries that using e-mail made them feel more secure that any question they had could be answered right away. Moreover, students began to form small study groups that gradually brought them closer to one another. As Joanna wrote in an e-mail:

Gradually, I am realizing that the stress for not knowing how to use the Internet is minimizing. I must confess that after learning to use email, I am much more confident and I am proactive in communicating with my classmates and instructors. Now I exchange ideas, bibliographical references, and friendly greetings and we arrange face-to-face meetings and online chats! The close relationships I have managed to form with some of my classmates, perhaps due to the nature of this program, help me tremendously to deal with my feelings of stress. […] If I had been told at the beginning of this course that I would have formed such strong relationships with some of my classmates, I would never have believed it! It's paradoxical, but I feel that I have managed to create stronger relationships in the context of this online program than I ever did in my face-to-face classes. (secondary school teacher, 47 years old)

Struggle to balance multiple roles and responsibilities. Alongside the positive feelings that these women expressed, there were also many negative ones that generated a lot of emotional ambivalence about distance learning. As it was already mentioned, the first negative reactions had to do with the ability to overcome the challenges of distance learning methodology. Feelings of stress, anxiety, and desperation were present since all of the students had been confronted with the demands of an unfamiliar methodology. The following excerpt comes from Celia's first diary:

To be honest, I am terribly anxious because of this methodology of distance learning. This is something completely unknown to me. Registration from a distance, distance teaching, distance learning—all of these make me question the effectiveness of this methodology. So far, I have to say that the lack of face-to-face communication with my instructors and my limited inexperience with using technology make me feel like a lonely traveller. […] I don't know where to start… (primary school teacher, 34 years old)

The feelings of isolation and loneliness were dominant in many students for almost half-way through the course. As another student writes in her journal:

The written communication through a machine does not satisfy me completely, because I feel that it does not fit my character. In communicating with people, I pay great attention to facial expressions, bodily posture and mannerisms. Clearly, these elements are absent in online communication. Sometimes, I feel embarrassed because I think my email messages to classmates and my instructor are too 'cold' and 'formal'. I also feel that this kind of communication leads me, unconsciously perhaps, to the application of very formal rules of writing. Some other times I am overwhelmed by feelings of isolation because I want to chat on something I don't understand, yet I cannot do this over the Internet. The computer cannot take the place of personal human contact… (secondary school teacher, 49 years old)

The most serious obstacle that these women seemed to face was their struggle to combine their professional, family and social life; this struggle made it harder for them to cope with the numerous demands of the program. In particular, there were systematic references in their diaries and emails how much they felt immensely stressed out. Feelings of isolation seemed to make things even more difficult. The following is another excerpt from a diary half-way through the course:

On the one hand, the feeling of isolation invokes intense feelings of stress because of the lack of face-to-face communication. On the other hand, I have so many other responsibilities—I am a mother, a wife, a professional [teacher] and a student—I cannot cope with all of those. I feel guilty for paying no attention to my husband and children. I am beginning to wonder if I have made the right choice to enrol in this program.. (primary school teacher, 35 years old)

Another student also notes:

I feel that my private space has been taken over and it is now a study space, something that makes me feel a lot of discomfort […]. Also, I cannot study until late at night, that is, until after the kids sleep and I clean the house, cook for the following day and take care all of my other responsibilities. For these reasons, studying is always the last thing to do. So I wonder with what frame of mind one can concentrate to study at ten o' clock at night, being exhausted after a very long day? (primary school teacher, 37 years old)

It is important to highlight that similar comments about studying late at night until after all of their other obligations are fulfilled, were made by all of the women in this program. Many months into the program and the women still referred to their despair and frustration about the multiple roles they had to fulfil simultaneously. As Christine said very poignantly:

"I feel I am always running towards something that I cannot reach. There are many times that the stress of the day does not allow me to study. Moreover, I have pushed aside my family and I feel very guilty for that…"

In general, distance learning methodology seemed to be an exhausting and hard-working learning process for the women of this program; they had to deal with intensive negative feelings about not being able to fulfil their multiple responsibilities. The last excerpt from the second interview raises an interesting and unexpected dimension of open and distance education for adults:

The open and distance learning program ends up being a painful and exhausting process for someone who works, and especially for those who have family and professional responsibilities. This shows how difficult it is to put an end to social and educational inequalities […]. On the one hand, I was given an opportunity to study, one that I did not have in the past, so I truly appreciate this. On the other hand, however, I cannot benefit from this and so I am deeply disappointed. I have so many responsibilities on my shoulders (family, professional, and social) and the demands of this programs are unrealistic, in my view. So, I wonder: To whom is this program really addressed? If you want my opinion, I don't think it is addressed to women professionals. (primary school teacher, 38 years old)

Discussion and Implications

The findings of this investigation provide two important insights for both programs under investigation: (1) It is shown how emotional experiences essentially reveal the effects of power and societal relations, that is, how distance education programs may indeed provide opportunities to women to break out of domesticity imposed on them by their other roles and the expectations attached to them (Edwards, 1993; Davies, et al., 2002), yet studying 'at home' has heavy demands as a result of conflicts with other responsibilities; (2) The results of this study indicate that although both programs are situated in different settings, women's experiences are manifested and expressed in ambivalent ways, that is, both positive and negative emotional experiences co-exist. These insights and their implications are briefly discussed below.

Studying 'at home' for women often means that it has to be carried out both in the physical space of domestic responsibilities and within the time frame set by pre-existing roles. To cope, women students develop various strategies of time management in order to balance their conflicting responsibilities frequently resulting in stress, pressure and feelings of frustration. All these appeared to be a common and recurring theme in the stories of women in both programs under investigation. As Reay (2003, p.301) points out "in such circumstances, when any sort of social life is sacrificed, what becomes visible is time poverty, and, in particular, a lack of time for 'care of the self'". In another study we have indicated that the need for support becomes paramount for whether the whole experience would develop positively or negatively. In particular, the role of the immediate familial surroundings and particularly that of the husband appears to be crucial as his supportive or indifferent and unconstructive stance might affect to a great extent women's educational experiences (Vryonides & Vitsilakis, in press).

As with other studies (Camporese et al, 1998; Peters, 1999; Sullivan, 2000; Nordenmark & Nyman, 2003; Graig, 2006; Graig, 2006b; Mattingly & Sayer, 2006; Sayer, 2006) this study too highlights the disadvantaged position women with familial obligations find themselves to time structure their daily routines when they decide to return or enter higher education. This has serious implications for the policy of widening participation in new forms of educational opportunities especially when these were supposedly designed to address their needs. It appears that e-learning, as one of the most prominent form of current educational innovations which was introduced to address the needs of disadvantaged groups, has not yet done so comprehensively. Women such as the ones presented in this study can not make the most of this innovative opportunity simply because they have little control and freedom to structure their day in terms of time and content. This inevitably may result in grounding women within the confines of domesticity and consequently to the reproduction of gender inequalities even when opportunities for widening access to further education are set up. So, even when positive feelings about the program were expressed, those seemed to be at a general level and focused on the potentiality of distance education programs to serve the needs of working women, especially the needs in relation to communication.

Furthermore, the analysis in this study locates women in social and power relations to multiple sources of pressure or support. It is shown, for example, how societal expectations for women in both Greece and Cyprus—i.e. women teachers must advance their careers but they must also take major responsibilities in their families such as childcare and housework—shape women's experiences with new forms of education (see Vryonides, Vitsilakis & Efthymiou, 2006). Based on the assumption that every aspect of social life is governed by power, it is na�ve to expect that power relations can be relieved easily in any way. However, studies such as the one presented here can indeed reveal the effects of power and thus specific measures may be taken to deal with the implications. For instance, the issue of how new forms of education should be designed for working women requires further careful exploration. The demands of distance learning, as revealed in this study, confirms von Pr�mmer's (2000) findings that women are less likely to be relieved of other responsibilities such as childcare and housework when they take up studying. The real issue, then, is what can be done to address the perpetuation of gender inequalities despite the opportunities offered through new forms of education (Kramarae, 2001). Or to put this differently: where should the boundaries of education be set so that the tensions between private and public spheres of women's life do not end up extending marginalization, contrary to the proclaimed rhetoric of social inclusion?

Given that there is not a clear boarder between private and public spheres, especially in adult learning (Usher & Edwards, 1996), concepts such as 'lifelong learning' and 'democratization of education' need to be further scrutinized by education policymakers. In other words, we need to interrogate whether new forms of education really address old inequities and whether they provide less access to education, rather than more. The rhetoric of democratization of education is appealing. Yet, some traditionally marginalized groups such as women cannot succeed in meeting the demands of new forms of education, if support measures (e.g. paid time off) are not provided at the policy level. Ideally, these forms of education need to be sensitive to women's needs, rather than the market's needs; educational policymakers need to create the space and support structures for this to occur. Access to these programs is not enough; accomplishing the goals of social inclusion will require changes in curriculum and social policies.

References

[1] Camporese, R., Freguja, C. & Sabbadini L.L. (1998). Time Use by Gender and Quality of Life, Social Indicators Research, 44, 119–144.

[2] Cavounidis, J. (1996) Family and work in Athens, (Athens: Sakkoulas) (in Greek).

[3] Davies, P., Osborne, M., Williams, J. (2002) For Me or Not for Me? - That is the Question: A Study of Mature Students' Decision Making and Higher Education, (Norwich: DfES).

[4] Edwards, R. (1993) Mature Women Students: Separating or Connecting Family and Education (London: Taylor and Francis).

[5] Erickson, F. (1986). Qualitative methods in research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 119-161). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

[6] Graig, L. (2006a). Children and the revolution A time-diary analysis of the impact of motherhood on daily workload, Journal of Sociology, 42(2), 125–143.

[7] Graig, L. (2006b). Does father care mean fathers share? A Comparison of How Mothers and Fathers in Intact Families Spend Time with Children, Gender & Society, 20 (2), 259-281.

[8] Green, T. and Vryonides, M. (2005) Ideological tensions in the educational choice practices of modern Greek Cypriot parents: the role of social capital, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 26 (3), 327-342.

[9] Grummell, B.(2007) The Second Chance Myth: Equality of Opportunity in Irish Adult Education Policies, British Journal of Educational Studies",55 (3) 182-201

[10] Harris, J., (2000), The recognition of prior learning (RPL) in higher education: Doing boundary work? Conference proceedings 10-13 December 2000, University of Technology Sydney New South Wales, Australia.

[11] Johnson, S. and Robson, C. (1999) Threatened Identities: The Experiences of Women in Transition to Programmes of Professional Higher Education, Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 9, 273 – 288.

[12] Keegan, D. (2001) The European University Distance Education at the Dawn of the Third Millennium, in A. Lionarakis (ed) Apopseis kai Provlimatismoi gia tin Anoikti kai ej Apostaseos Ekpaideusi (Views and Thoughts for Open and Distance Education), Athens: Propompos

[13] Kramarae, C. (2001). The third shift: Women learning online. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women Education Foundation.

[14] Lyotard, J-F., (1984), The Post modern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. G. Bennington and B. Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press).

[15] Maratou-Alipranti, L. (1995) The family in Athens: familial role-models and conjugal practices, (Athens: EKKE), (in Greek).

[16] Mattingly, M. J., & Sayer, L. C. (2006). Under Pressure: Gender Differences in the Relationship between Free Time and Feeling Rushed, Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 205–221.

[17] Moss, D. (2004) Creating space for learning: conceptualizing women and higher education through space and time, Gender and Education, 16 (3), 283 -302

[18] Mousourou, L. K. (2003) Sociology of contemporary family, (Athens: Gutenberg) (in Greek)

[19] Nordenmark, M. & Nyman, C. (2003). Fair or Unfair? Perceived Fairness of Household Division of Labour and Gender Equality among Women and Men: The Swedish Case, The European Journal of Women's Studies, 10(2), 181–209.

[20] Pascal, G. and Cox, R. (1993) Women returning to higher education (Buckingham, Open University Press).

[21] Peters, P. (1999). Time Allocation in Times of Structural Transformation, A synchronic view on (gender) differences in The Netherlands, Time & Society, 8(2), 329–356.

[22] Reay, D. (2002) Class, authenticity and the transition to higher education for mature students, Sociological Review, 50 (3), 396–416.

[23] Reay, D. (2003) A Risky Business? Mature Working-class Women Students and Access to Higher Education, Gender and Education, 15 (3), 301-317.

[24] Sayer, L. C. (2006). Gender, Time and Inequality: Trends in Women's and Men's Paid Work, Unpaid Work and Free Time, Social Forces, 84 (1), 285-303

[25] Sch�n, D., (1983), The Reflective Practitioner (New York: Basic Books).

[26] Strauss and Corbin (1998)

[27] Sullivan, O. (2000). The Division of Domestic Labour: Twenty Years of Change?, Sociology, 34 (3), 437-456.

[28] Usher, R. & Solomon, N., (1999), Experiential learning and the shaping of subjectivity in the workplace. Studies in the Education of Adults, 31, 155-163.

[29] Usher, R., & Edwards, R., (1994), Postmodernism and Education (London: Routledge).

[30] von Pr�mmer, C. (2000). Women and distance education. Challenges and opportunities. London: Routledge Falmer.

[31] Vryonides, M. and Vitsilakis, C. (In press) Working mothers in higher education in Greece: a qualitative investigation, Journal of Education Policy

[32] Vryonides, M. Vitsilakis, C. and Efthymiou, E. (2006) Postgraduate study by e-learning in Greece: addressing social and geographical marginalisation, In: A. Antikainen, P. Harinen and C. Torres (eds) At the Margins of Adult Education, Work and Civil Society, (Rotterdam: Sense)

[33] Weber, P., and Ribold, M. (2005). Evaluating Blended Online Learning – An Integration Model for Lifelong Learning. In Andr�s Sz�cs, and Ingeborg B� (Eds.) Lifelong E-Learning. Bringinge-learning close to lifelong learning and working life: a new period of uptake, Proceedings, EDEN - European Distance and E-Learning Network, Annual Conference 2005, 20-23 June, Helsinki University of Technology, Lifelong Learning Institute Dipoli.

[34] Zembylas, M. (2006). Work-based learning methodologies, politics and power: Developing a Foucauldian research ethic. Journal of Education and Work, 19, 291-303.

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Δραστηριότητες πρόληψης του άγχους - Οδηγός του εκπαιδευτή

Ο οδηγός αυτός συντάχθηκε ως μέρος των εκπαιδευτικών υλικών τα οποία είναι αποτέλεσμα του έργου «Δραστηριότητες Πρόληψης του Άγχους» (SPA).
Πρόκειται για ένα διεθνές ευρωπαϊκό έργο που αναπτύχθηκε με τη στήριξη του
ευρωπαϊκού προγράμματος Leonardo da Vinci και στόχος του είναι να
προωθήσει την αποτελεσματική αξιολόγηση και πρόληψη των κινδύνων του
εργασιακού και εκπαιδευτικού άγχους, να αυξήσει την ευαισθητοποίηση όσον
αφορά τις προληπτικές ενέργειες, να συμπεριλάβει όλα τα εμπλεκόμενα μέρη
(κοινωνικούς εταίρους, ιδιοκτήτες, υπαλλήλους εταιρειών, ειδικούς) στις
δραστηριότητες του προγράμματος και να απευθυνθεί σε όλες τις μικρές
επιχειρήσεις της Ευρώπης αναπτύσσοντας μεταβιβάσιμες πρακτικές και
αποτελέσματα...

Στόχος αυτού του οδηγού είναι να προσφέρει καθοδήγηση για τη βέλτιστη χρήση
των εκπαιδευτικών εργαλείων και υλικών που έχουν δημιουργηθεί για το SPA.
Απευθύνεται κυρίως στους εκπαιδευτές και σε όσους συμμετέχουν στο
εκπαιδευτικό πρόγραμμα που προτείνει. Είναι κυρίως ένα χρήσιμο και πολύτιμο
εργαλείο για την εκπαίδευση των εκπαιδευτών.

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Teaching Adults: Is It Different? Myths and Realities

Της Susan Imel, ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career and Vocational Education Columbus, Ohio

The adult education literature generally supports the idea that teaching adults should be approached in a different way than teaching children and adolescents. The assumption that teachers of adults should use a different style of teaching is based on the widely espoused theory of andragogy, which suggests that "adults expect learner-centered settings where they can set their own goals and organize their own learning around their present life needs" (Donaldson, Flannery, and Ross-Gordon 1993, p. 148). However, even in the field of adult education, debate occurs about the efficacy of a separate approach for teaching adults. Some believe that adult education is essentially the same process as education generally (Garrison 1994) and therefore does not require a separate teaching approach: that is, all good teaching, whether for adults or children, should be responsive in nature...

The question of whether teaching adults is different remains ambiguous. For example, research summarized in an ERIC Digest (Imel 1989) has shown that even those educators who say they believe in using an andragogical approach do not necessarily use a different style when teaching adults. Additional myths and realities related to teaching adults are explored in this publication. Two areas are examined: types of adult learning and what learners themselves want from teachers.

Different Types of Adult Learning

One way to approach the question of whether teaching adults is different is by examining the types of learning in which adults engage. Drawing upon the work of Habermas and Mezirow, Cranton (1994) classified adult learning into three categories:

Subject-oriented adult learning --In adult learning contexts that are subject oriented, the primary goal is to acquire content. The educator "speaks of covering the material, and the learners see themselves as gaining knowledge or skills" (ibid., p. 10).

Consumer-oriented adult learning --The goal of consumer-oriented learning is to fulfill the expressed needs of learners. Learners set their learning goals, identify objectives, select relevant resources, and so forth. The educator acts as a facilitator or resource person, "and does not engage in challenging or questioning what learners say about their needs" (ibid., p. 12).

Emancipatory adult learning --The goal of emancipatory learning is to free learners from the forces that limit their options and control over their lives, forces that they have taken for granted or seen as beyond their control. Emancipatory learning results in transformations of learner perspectives through critical reflection (Mezirow 1991). The educator plays an active role in fostering critical reflection by challenging learners to consider why they hold certain assumptions, values, and beliefs (Cranton 1994).

Of the three types of adult learning, only emancipatory has been described as unique to adulthood, but even that claim has been challenged (Merriam and Caffarella 1991). Subject-oriented learning is the most common form of learning engaged in by youth. Collaborative and cooperative learning and other types of experiential learning that are more consumer oriented are also found in youth classrooms. However, according to Mezirow (1981), emancipatory learning, with its emphasis upon learner transformation, can take place only in adulthood because, "it is only in late adolescence and in adulthood that a person can recognize being caught in his/her own history and reliving it" (p. 11). In adulthood, "rather than merely adapting to changing circumstances by more diligently applying old ways of knowing . . . [individuals] discover a need to acquire new perspectives in order to gain a more complete understanding of changing events and a higher degree of control over their lives. The formative learning of childhood becomes transformative learning in adulthood" (Mezirow 1991, p. 3). As a result of the research and theory-building efforts of Mezirow-fully described in Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning (1991)-emancipatory adult learning has become more commonly known as transformative learning.

Teaching Approaches for Transformative Learning

If transformative learning is unique to adulthood, does it require the use of teaching approaches that are geared specifically to adults? This is not clear. It is true that transformative learning requires that learners address problems through critical reflection. Some strategies used to facilitate transformative learning, e.g., such as journal writing, critical incidents, and experiential methods, are used in other types of learning as well. (See Cranton 1994 and Mezirow and Associates 1990 for a full discussion of these and other methods that can be used to promote transformative learning.)

What is clear is that fostering transformative learning demands a different approach by the educator. Although learners must decide on their own to engage in transformative learning, educators who wish to promote transformative learning have the responsibility to set the stage and provide opportunities for critical reflection (Cranton 1994). When educators are operating in the domain of transformative learning, they help learners examine their beliefs and how they have acquired them by creating situations in which they can debate how their values, assumptions, ideologies, and beliefs have come to be constructed (Newman 1993). Instead of congratulating themselves for having made their point when a learner says, "I never looked at it that way before," educators can help learners engage in transformative learning by responding with, "`How did you see things?' and then, `What made you see things like that?' and then `If we can understand how you came to have a set of ideas and attitudes then, let's look at how you come to have the ideas and attitudes you have now'" (ibid., p. 182).

Of course, not all adult learning is transformative in nature; many adult educators also do not believe that they have a role in helping adults engage in critical reflection and, consequently, never operate in the transformative domain. Those who do, however, perceive that teaching adults is different.

What Do Adults Expect from Teaching?

Examining what adult learners expect from teaching provides another perspective on whether teaching adults is different. In this context, the question might be more appropriately posed, "Based on adult students' expectations, should teaching adults be different?" In an effort to answer this question, Donaldson, Flannery, and Ross-Gordon (1993) combined and reanalyzed research that examined adult college students' expectations of effective teaching and compared them with those of traditional students.

Previously, each of the authors had conducted investigations that looked at aspects of this question. Donaldson (1989) used a case study approach to examine student letters recommending faculty members for an excellence in off-campus teaching award. Flannery (1991) interviewed 68 returning students during the first semester back at school, asking them what they expected of instructors in the classroom. Ross-Gordon (1991) used the Critical Incident Technique to collect examples of the best and poorest instructors that respondents had encountered during college. Data for Ross-Gordon's study were collected through a questionnaire mailed to a randomly selected sample of adult undergraduates. The results from all three studies suggested that adult students might have "different" expectations for teachers that in some ways paralleled the assumptions underlying an andragogical approach, but each researcher also found some similarities to expectations for a teacher-directed approach. By combining the results of their studies, the researchers were able to confirm and extend their individual results and also add an element that compared the expectations of adult students to those of traditional students as reflected in the literature.

In the combined results, the six most frequently mentioned attributes adult learners expected of effective instructors were as follows (Donaldson, Flannery, and Ross-Gordon 1993, p. 150): to be knowledgeable; to show concern for student learning; to present material clearly; to motivate; to emphasize relevance of class material; to be enthusiastic.

Thus, the adult learners in this study demonstrated preferences for characteristics associated with both student-centered (e.g., relevance of material, concern for student learning) and teacher-directed (e.g., knowledge, clarity) instruction. When adult expectations for good teaching were compared with those of traditional students, many similarities existed in how the two groups characterized good teaching. However, four teacher characteristics mentioned by adults that were not among the top items for undergraduates were as follows: creates a comfortable learning atmosphere; uses a variety of techniques; adapts to meet diverse needs; dedicated to teaching.

Donaldson, Flannery, and Ross-Gordon (1993) point out that the first three of these items are congruent with the principles of instruction found in the adult education literature. Perhaps, as suggested by the researchers, when it comes to teaching adults, "the issue is not to continue to promote an either/or approach with regard to teaching expectations of adults, but rather to concentrate on the particular attributes which adults consistently select as important for effective teaching" (ibid., p. 150).

Conclusion

Is teaching adults different? Based upon the literature discussed here, the answer is both yes and no. Perhaps a better way to frame the question would be "Should teaching adults be different?" The answer to that would, of course, depend upon the purpose of the teaching-learning situation, including what approach and methods seem to be appropriate, as well as the needs of the learners. Many of the myths related to teaching adults emerge from an uncritical acceptance of the theory of andragogy. Unfortunately, the assumptions underlying the theory are still largely untested through research. Pratt (1993) also points out that adult educators need to examine the philosophical assumptions underlying andragogy in order to clarify "the underlying values and beliefs and . . . central concept of [adult] learning" (p. 87).

References

Cranton, P. Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A Guide for Educators of Adults. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1994.

Donaldson, J. F. "An Examination of Similarities and Differences among Adults' Perceptions of Instructional Excellence." Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Conference, San Francisco, California, March 1989. (ED 308 750)

Donaldson, J. F.; Flannery, D.; and Ross-Gordon, J. "A Triangulated Study Comparing Adult College Students' Perceptions of Effective Teaching with Those of Traditional Students." Continuing Higher Education Review 57, no. 3 (Fall 1993): 147-165.

Flannery, D. "Adults' Expectations of Instructors: Criteria for Hiring and Evaluating Instructors." Continuing Higher Education Review 55, nos. 1-2 (Winter-Spring 1991): 34-48.

Garrison, D. R. "An Epistemological Overview of the Field." In Research Perspectives in Adult Education, edited by D. R. Garrison. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing, 1994.

Imel, S. Teaching Adults: Is It Different? ERIC Digest No. 82 . Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Center on Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio State University, 1989. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 305 495)

Merriam, S. B., and Caffarella, R. S. Learning in Adulthood. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1991.

Mezirow, J. Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1991.

Mezirow, J. "A Critical Theory of Adult Learning and Education." Adult Education 32, no. 1 (Fall 1981): 3-24.

Mezirow, J., and Associates. Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass 1990.

Newman, M. The Third Contract: Theory and Practice in Trade Union Training. Sydney, New South Wales, Australia: Stewart Victor Publishing, 1993.

Pratt, D. D. "Andragogy after Twenty-five Years." In An Update on Adult Learning Theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education No. 57, edited by S. B. Merriam. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Spring 1993.

Ross-Gordon, J. M. "Critical Incidents in the College Classroom: What Do Adult Undergraduates Perceive as Effective Teaching?" Continuing Higher Education Review 55, nos. 1-2 (Winter-Spring 1991): 14-33.

his ERIC Digest was published in 1995. The project was funded at least in part with Federal funds from the U.S. Department of Education under Contract No. ED-99-CO-0013.

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Διπλωματική Εργασία για τις παιδαγωγικές προεκτάσεις της πλατφόρμας του Moodle

Η διπλωματική εργασία είναι της κας Χριστίνας Σουλιώτη υποβλήθηκε στα πλαίσια του μεταπτυχιακού προγράμματος με τίτλο "ΜΕΤΑΠΤΥΧΙΑΚΟ ΠΡΟΓΡΑΜΜΑ ΣΠΟΥΔΩΝ στην ΠΛΗΡΟΦΟΡΙΚΗ. ΚΑΤΕΥΘΥΝΣΗ: ΤΕΧΝΟΛΟΓΙΕΣ ΠΛΗΡΟΦΟΡΙΑΣ & ΕΠΙΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΩΝ ΣΤΗΝ ΕΚΠΑΙΔΕΥΣΗ,) στο ΑΡΙΣΤΟΤΕΛΕΙΟ ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΗΣ, ΤΜΗΜΑ ΠΛΗΡΟΦΟΡΙΚΗΣ

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Τι είναι οι μαθησιακές δυσκολίες;

Του Βασιλειάδη Γρηγόρη
Ψυχολόγος - Ψυχοθεραπευτής,
Διδάκτωρ Ψυχολογίας (Ph.D.) Ημερομηνία δημοσίευσης: 18 Μαϊου 2005
http://www.iatronet.gr

Οι "κρυφές" αυτές αναπηρίες που ονομάζουμε μαθησιακές δυσκολίες υπάρχουν από τότε που οι άνθρωποι έπρεπε να επεξεργάζονται πληροφορίες και να μαθαίνουν. Οι μαθησιακές δυσκολίες γίνονταν όλο και πιο γνωστές με το πέρασμα του χρόνου καθώς η κοινωνία μας δίνει ολοένα και μεγαλύτερη έμφαση στη μάθηση και την εκπαίδευση.

Οι μαθησιακές δυσκολίες εμφανίζονται με πολλές μορφές … οπτική, ακουστική, κινητικού ελέγχου, δυσκολία στην επικοινωνία ,στη λογική επεξεργασία πληροφοριών, κ.λ.π. Η αποτελεσματική αντιμετώπισή τους πρέπει να περιλαμβάνει μια ολιστική προσέγγιση η οποία να λαμβάνει υπόψη της τις εκπαιδευτικές, σωματικές, ψυχολογικές και ιατρικές ανάγκες του κάθε παιδιού ξεχωριστά...

"Ειδική μαθησιακή δυσκολία είναι μια διαταραχή η οποία πλήττει μία ή και περισσότερες από τις βασικές ψυχολογικές διαδικασίες που εμπλέκονται στην κατανόηση ή την χρήση της γλώσσας, προφορική ή γραπτή, και μπορεί να εκδηλωθεί σαν αδυναμία του παιδιού στο να ακούει, να σκέφτεται, να μιλάει, να γράφει, να προφέρει τις λέξεις, ή να εκτελεί μαθηματικούς υπολογισμούς. Ο όρος περιλαμβάνει καταστάσεις όπως αντιληπτικές διαταραχές, εγκεφαλική βλάβη, ελάχιστη εγκεφαλική δυσλειτουργία, δυσλεξία και εξελικτική αφασία.. Στην κατηγορία της ειδικής μαθησιακής δυσκολίας δεν περιλαμβάνονται τα παιδιά που παρουσιάζουν μαθησιακά προβλήματα που οφείλονται κατά κύριο λόγο σε οπτικές, ακουστικές, ή κινητικές αναπηρίες, σε νοητική υστέρηση σε συναισθηματικές διαταραχές, ή σε μειονεκτικό περιβάλλον, περιοριστικές πολιτισμικές ή οικονομικές συνθήκες".

Κάθε παιδί, έφηβος, ή ενήλικος με μαθησιακή δυσκολία είναι μοναδικός. Παρουσιάζει διαφορετικό συνδυασμό και σοβαρότητα προβλημάτων. Είναι ένα άτομο με μία, ή περισσότερες σημαντικές ελλείψεις στις βασικές διαδικασίες μάθησης.

Το άτομο που παρουσιάζει μαθησιακές δυσκολίες έχει συνήθως νοημοσύνη μέσου όρου, ή πάνω από τον μέσο όρο. Παρόλα αυτά, για κάποιον γνωστό ή άγνωστο λόγο υπάρχει ένα χάσμα ανάμεσα στο δυναμικό του ατόμου (τι θα μπορούσε δυνητικά να πετύχει), και στο τι πραγματικά πετυχαίνει στη ζωή του.

Συμπτώματα της μαθησιακής δυσκολίας

Στα συμπτώματα των μαθησιακών δυσκολιών περιλαμβάνονται μια μεγάλη γκάμα από χαρακτηριστικά που επηρεάζουν την ανάπτυξη και τα επιτεύγματα του παιδιού. Πρέπει να σημειωθεί ότι κάποια απ' αυτά τα συμπτώματα μπορεί να παρουσιαστούν σε όλα τα παιδιά σε κάποιο στάδιο της ανάπτυξής τους. Εκείνο που πρέπει να θυμόμαστε είναι ότι το άτομο με ειδική μαθησιακή δυσκολία εμφανίζει μία ομάδα από συμπτώματα που συνοδεύουν το παιδί στην εξελικτική του πορεία και δεν εξαφανίζονται με το πέρασμα του χρόνου. Τα πιο συχνά συμπτώματα είναι: διάσπαση προσοχής, φτωχή μνήμη, δυσκολία στο να ακολουθεί οδηγίες, δυσκολία στο να ξεχωρίζει μεταξύ τους τα γράμματα, τους αριθμούς, και τους ήχους, περιορισμένη αναγνωστική ικανότητα, προβλήματα στον οπτικο-κινητικό συντονισμό, δυσκολία στη σειροθέτηση (π.χ. ακολουθία των ημερών της εβδομάδας, των μηνών του χρόνου, κ.λ.π.), αποδιοργάνωση, και πολλά άλλα προβλήματα που μπορεί να το επηρεάζουν.

Ένας πιο εκτεταμένος κατάλογος συμπτωμάτων περιλαμβάνει τα εξής:

Συμπεριφορά που διαφέρει από μέρα σε μέρα
Μη αναμενόμενη/ακατάλληλη συμπεριφορά σε καθημερινές καταστάσεις (π..χ. κοινωνικές περιστάσεις)
Υπερκινητικότητα , δεν μπορεί να συγκεντρώσει το ενδιαφέρον του σε κάτι για πολλή ώρα, εύκολα αποσπάται
Μπορεί να λεει κάτι και να εννοεί κάτι άλλο
Δυσκολεύεται να πειθαρχήσει
Δεν προσαρμόζεται όταν απαιτείται αλλαγή
Ανώριμη ομιλία
Δεν ακούει και δεν θυμάται καλά
Δεν μπορεί να ακολουθήσει οδηγίες που προέρχονται από διαφορετικές πηγές
Εύκολα ξεχνάει
Έχει δυσκολία στο να οριοθετηθεί χρονικά και να ξεχωρίσει το αριστερό από το δεξί
Έχει πρόβλημα στο να ονομάσει οικεία/γνώριμα πρόσωπα και πράγματα
Έχει δυσκολία στο να προφέρει λέξεις
Δυσκολεύεται στη γραφή
Αντιστρέφει γράμματα ή τα βάζει σε λάθος θέση - π.χ. "θ" αντί "β", ε αντί 3, κ.λ.π
Δυσκολεύεται ιδιαίτερα στην ανάγνωση
Δεν μπορεί να οργανώσει εύκολα τον χρόνο του και να συντονίσει τις ενέργειές του για την επίτευξη κάποιου στόχου
Δυσκολεύεται να κατανοήσει λέξεις ή έννοιες
Έχει καθυστερημένη γλωσσική ανάπτυξη
Έχει καθυστερημένη (αδρά ή λεπτή) κινητική ανάπτυξη
Παρορμητικότητα
Εάν κάποιο άτομο παρουσιάζει μόνο μερικά από τα παραπάνω συμπτώματα δεν σημαίνει απαραίτητα ότι έχει ειδική μαθησιακή δυσκολία, αφού οι περισσότεροι άνθρωποι εμφανίζουν περιστασιακά λίγα από αυτά τα συμπτώματα κάποια στιγμή στη ζωή τους. Όταν όμως κάποιος παρουσιάζει αρκετά από τα παραπάνω τότε ίσως χρειάζεται να εξετασθεί το ενδεχόμενο της μαθησιακής δυσκολίας.

Δυσλεξία

Δυσλεξία ή ειδική μαθησιακή δυσκολία είναι ένας όρος που τον χρησιμοποιούμε για να περιγράψουμε τα παιδιά ή τους ενήλικες με νοημοσύνη μέσου όρου ή πάνω από το μέσο όρο που παρουσιάζουν ιδιαίτερη δυσκολία στη μάθηση, σε ένα ή περισσότερα επίπεδα γραπτής γλώσσας, ανάγνωσης και ορθογραφίας που μπορεί επίσης να συνοδεύεται από δυσκολία στην αρίθμηση, βραχύχρονη μνήμη, λογική ακολουθία σκέψης, ακουστική και/ή οπτική αντίληψη. Ενώ υπάρχει άμεση σχέση με τον γραπτό λόγο, και ο προφορικός λόγος συχνά επηρεάζεται σε ένα βαθμό.

Τα άτομα που αντιμετωπίζουν τις παραπάνω δυσχέρειες χρειάζονται ειδική παιδαγωγική μεταχείριση και εξειδικευμένη διδασκαλία που να ανταποκρίνεται στη φύση των αναγκών τους, έτσι ώστε να αναπτύξουν στο μέγιστο δυνατό βαθμό την νοητική τους ικανότητα και αποτελεσματικότητα..

Ανάμεσα στα πιο εμφανή χαρακτηριστικά αυτού που αποκαλούμε δυσλεξία συμπεριλαμβάνεται και ο συνδυασμός των παρακάτω:

Δυσκολίες στην ονομασία/ εξεύρεση λέξεων
Δυσκολίες επεξεργασίας ήχου
Φτωχή ακουστική μνήμη
Δυσκολία στην εκμάθηση κανόνων
Φτωχό λεξιλόγιο
Δυσκολία στην κατανόηση κειμένου & στην έκφραση σκέψεων με οργανωμένο και συνεκτικό λόγο
Ανορθόδοξη ορθογραφία και γραφικός χαρακτήρας
Σύγχυση γραμμάτων
Δυσκολία σε μορφές αναπαραστατικής μνήμης (π.χ. μέρες της εβδομάδας, μήνες του χρόνου, δεξί-αριστερό, πάνω-κάτω, συνειδητοποίηση της ώρας)
Ευτυχώς, πολύ λίγα άτομα εμφανίζουν όλα τα συμπτώματα του παραπάνω δυσλεκτικού τύπου, έχουν όμως αρκετά κοινά γνωρίσματα ώστε να αποτελέσουν μια ομάδα ανθρώπων με ξεχωριστές εκπαιδευτικές ανάγκες.

Πηγή Ανάκτησης:
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Journal of Medicine Laboratory and Diagnosis

Εστάλη από academicjournals.org

Dear Colleague,
The Journal of Medical Laboratory and Diagnosis (JMLD) is a multidisciplinary peer-reviewed journal published monthly by Academic Journals (www.academicjournals.org/JMLD). JMLD is dedicated to increasing the depth of research across all areas of this subject.

Call for Papers

JMLD welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence in this subject area, and will publish:

· Original articles in basic and applied research
· Case studies
· Critical reviews, surveys, opinions, commentaries and essays...

We invite you to submit your manuscript(s) to jmld.journal@gmail.com for publication . Our objective is to inform authors of the decision on their manuscript(s) within four weeks of submission. Following acceptance, a paper will normally be published in the next issue. Instruction for authors and other details are available on our website; http://www.academicjournals.org/JMLD/Instruction.htm

JMLD is an Open Access Journal

One key request of researchers across the world is unrestricted access to research publications. Open access gives a worldwide audience larger than that of any subscription-based journal ad thus increases the visibility and impact of published work. It also enhances indexing, retrieval power and eliminates the need for permissions to reproduce and distribute content. JMLD is fully committed to the Open Access Initiative and will provide free access to all articles as soon as they are published.

Best regards,

Onos Oluku
Editorial Assistant
Journal of Medical Laboratory and Diagnosis (JMLD)

E-mail: jmld.journal@gmail.com
www.acadjourn.org OR academicjournals.org/JML
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Η εναρκτήρια συνάντηση στην εκπαίδευση ενηλίκων

Του Αλέξανδρου Παπάνη
(Πολυτεχνείο Θράκης)

Εισαγωγή

Δεν θα ήταν υπερβολή εάν υποστηρίζαμε ότι η εναρκτήρια συνάντηση αποτελεί το κλειδί για ολόκληρη την εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία που ακολουθεί στη συνέχεια. Με αυτό το κλειδί ο εκπαιδευτής ξεκλειδώνει τόσο το νου όσο και το συναίσθημα των συμμετεχόντων, ώστε να δημιουργηθεί το κατάλληλο κλίμα που θα τους βοηθήσει και θα τους υποστηρίξει στην όλη μαθησιακή διαδικασία. Σε αυτή την πρώτη συνάντηση επιδιώκεται να οικοδομηθεί η εμπιστοσύνη προς τον εκπαιδευτή, η συνεργασία μεταξύ τους, να παραμεληθούν οι φόβοι, οι ενοχές και οι τυχόν ανησυχίες, να καλλιεργηθεί η ενεργητική συμμετοχή τους και να πληροφορηθούν για το πρόγραμμα που θα ακολουθήσει.

1. Σχεδιασμός Εναρκτήριας Συνάντησης

Σύμφωνα με τους Eitington J (1996), Silberman M (1998) και Noye D-Piveteau J (2002) ένας σωστός και πετυχημένος σχεδιασμός μια εναρκτήριας συνάντησης θα πρέπει να περιλαμβάνει τα ακόλουθα στάδια:

i. Αυτοπαρουσίαση του εκπαιδευτή

ii. Παρουσίαση των εκπαιδευομένων καθώς και των στόχων και των προσδοκιών τους...

iii.Διερεύνηση των υπαρχουσών γνώσεων, εμπειριών και ικανοτήτων των εκπαιδευομένων.

iv. Παρουσίαση των στόχων, του περιεχομένου, της μεθοδολογίας και του τρόπου λειτουργίας του προγράμματος.

v. Συζήτηση και διαπραγμάτευση μεταξύ εκπαιδευτή και εκπαιδευομένων σχετικά με τους στόχους τους προγράμματος. Σκοπός είναι να διαμορφωθεί ένα “εκπαιδευτικό συμβόλαιο” που αποτυπώνει τη συμφωνία μεταξύ εκπαιδευτή και εκπαιδευομένων για το πώς θα λειτουργήσει το πρόγραμμα και η μεταξύ τους συνεργασία.

vi. Πρώτη επεξεργασία ορισμένων βασικών ζητημάτων/ σημείων του αντικειμένου του προγράμματος, με στόχο οι εκπαιδευόμενοι να αποκτήσουν μια εικόνα αυτού που θα διδαχθούν.

Τέλος, η συναισθηματική στήριξη και ενθάρρυνση των εκπαιδευομένων, η ενίσχυση της αυτοεκτίμησής τους και η δημιουργία αγχολυτικού κλίματος αποτελούν επίσης κάποιες βασικές παραμέτρους της εναρκτήριας συνάντησης.

2. Προσέγγιση της Ομάδας με βάση την Ανδραγωγική θεωρία.

Η ανδραγωγική θεωρία η οποία πρωτοεμφανίστηκε στη δεκαετία του 1960 από τον Malcolm Knowles χαρακτηρίσθηκε ως η τέχνη και η επιστήμη του να βοηθάς τους ενήλικες να μαθαίνουν. Στην πραγματικότητα πρόκειται για μια δια-δραστική διεργασία ερμηνείας, η οποία οδηγεί στο συνεχή μετασχηματισμό των βιωμάτων των ενήλικων εκπαιδευομένων. Στηρίζεται σε μεγάλο βαθμό στην αυτο-πραγμάτωση των εκπαιδευομένων, αλλά και στον διευκολυντικό ρόλο του εκπαιδευτή.

Βασική προϋπόθεση σε αυτού του είδους τη προσέγγιση είναι καταρχήν η δημιουργία συνεργατικού μαθησιακού περιβάλλοντος μέσα από διάφορες τεχνικές όπως π.χ το παίξιμο ρόλων, το εκπαιδευτικό δράμα κτλ.

Ακόμη, η δημιουργία αμοιβαίου σχεδιασμού με την ανάπτυξη συγκεκριμένων θεμάτων και την οργάνωση του εκπαιδευτικού υλικού με τέτοιο τρόπο, ώστε να ανταποκρίνονται στις απαιτήσεις και στους στόχους του προγράμματος. Εξάλλου οι ενήλικες εκπαιδευόμενοι επιδιώκουν να αποκτήσουν συγκεκριμένες γνώσεις, παρά αφηρημένες και ακαδημαϊκές έννοιες.

Η έγκυρη και σωστή διάγνωση των αναγκών και των ενδιαφερόντων των εκπαιδευομένων αποτελεί μια ακόμα σημαντική συνιστώσα της ανδραγωγικής προσέγγισης. Οι εκπαιδευόμενοι θέλουν να αποκτήσουν γνώσεις που θα τους βοηθήσουν να αντιμετωπίσουν ορισμένες από τις καταστάσεις τις οποίες βιώνουν και η εκπαίδευση τους οφείλει να είναι σταθερά προσανατολισμένη προς σε αυτό το σκοπό.

Ο σχεδιασμός των δραστηριοτήτων από όλα τα συμβαλλόμενα μέλη αποτελεί ένα ακόμα χαρακτηριστικό της ανδραγωγικής προσέγγισης. Ο εκπαιδευτής συνεισφέρει σε αυτή τη διαδικασία με το να δίνει τις σωστές κατευθυντήριες γραμμές, προκειμένου να ενεργοποιηθούν οι εκπαιδευόμενοι πάνω στο γνωστικό αντικείμενο το οποίο σπουδάζουν.

Τέλος, η ορθή «διαχείριση» των πολλαπλών και πολυσύνθετων εμπειριών των εκπαιδευομένων από τον εκπαιδευτή, ώστε να αποτελέσουν αυτές πολύτιμη πηγή γνώσεων, είναι επίσης ένα κύριο μέλημα αυτής της προσέγγισης. Ωστόσο, η διαχείριση της προηγούμενης γνώσης των εκπαιδευομένων θα πρέπει πάντα να διατηρεί τον εκπαιδευτικό της χαρακτήρα και να μη μετατρέπεται σε θεραπευτική (όπως τείνει συχνά να γίνει όταν οι εκπαιδευόμενοι αφήνονται μόνοι τους και χωρίς καθοδήγηση να αναπτύξουν θέματα που τους απασχολούν, π.χ η κακοποίηση των γυναικών από τους συζύγους, καθώς τότε μεταπηδάμε στο γνωστικό αντικείμενο της ψυχικής υγείας.

3. Προσέγγιση της Ομάδας με βάση τη θεωρία της Κοινωνικής Αλλαγής.

Κατά τον Freire - τον θεμελιωτή της θεωρίας της κοινωνικής αλλαγής- ο εκπαιδευτής δεν πρέπει να περιορίζεται μόνο στον εκπαιδευτικό του ρόλο, αλλά να δρα κυρίως με στόχο την κοινωνική αλλαγή και την αλλαγή των δομών της κοινωνίας μέσα από την χειραφέτηση των εκπαιδευομένων του. Έτσι, η εκπαίδευση λειτουργεί απελευθερωτικά.

Ο ίδιος θεωρούσε τους εκπαιδευτές ως διαμεσολαβητές στη διεργασία της μάθησης και τους καλούσε να αναπτύξουν πραγματικό διάλογο με τους εκπαιδευομένους. Στα πλαίσια αυτού του διαλόγου ο εκπαιδευτής οφείλει καταρχάς να προωθήσει τη συνεργασία, την ισοτιμία, το σεβασμό και την ομόνοια μεταξύ των εκπαιδευομένων. Στη συνέχεια οφείλει να τους ρωτήσει τι πραγματικά θέλουν να μάθουν. (διερευνητικό στάδιο). Απαλλαγμένος από κάθε διάθεση χειραγώγησης των εκπαιδευομένων ο εκπαιδευτής προχωρεί ακολούθως στο θεματικό στάδιο, δηλαδή στην ανάπτυξη θεμάτων με κοινωνική σημασία τα οποία στη συνέχεια κωδικοποιούνται και αποκωδικοποιούνται, δηλαδή τους αποδίδεται νόημα και στη συνέχεια γίνεται ανασκόπηση του νοήματος. Τέλος, στο στάδιο του προβληματισμού ο εκπαιδευτής καλεί τους μαθητές του να σκεφτούν κριτικά βοηθώντας τους με αυτόν τον τρόπο να ανακαλύπτουν συνεχώς τις συνθήκες της πραγματικότητας τους.

Αποτέλεσμα και των τριών αυτών σταδίων είναι η συνειδητοποίηση ως συνδυασμού πράξεων και παρατηρήσεων οι οποίες έχουν πραγματοποιηθεί σε ελεύθερες και αυτόνομες συνθήκες μάθησης.

4. Προσέγγιση της Ομάδας με βάση τη Μετασχηματίζουσα Μάθηση.

Κατανοώ σημαίνει αντιλαμβάνομαι μια εμπειρία ή, καλύτερα, ερμηνεύω μια εμπειρία. Όταν εκ των υστέρων χρησιμοποιούμε αυτή την εμπειρία με σκοπό να πάρουμε αποφάσεις ή να προβούμε σε πράξεις, τότε η πρώτη αυτή αντίληψη της εμπειρίας μετατρέπεται σε μάθηση.

Το έργο του Mezirow (1977, 1989, 1990, 1991) σημαντικά επηρεασμένο από τις μελέτες του Γερμανού φιλοσόφου J. Habermas, αποτελεί την πληρέστερη προσέγγιση που έχει αναπτυχθεί μέχρι σήμερα σε ό,τι αφορά τον τρόπο με τον οποίο η μάθηση που περιέχει κριτικό στοχασμό μπορεί να επιφέρει βαθείς μετασχηματισμούς στο σύστημα αντιλήψεων των ενηλίκων.

Σύμφωνα με τον Mezirow, το κεντρικό ζητούμενο στην ενήλικη μάθηση είναι να βοηθά τους εκπαιδευομένους να επανεξετάζουν τα θεμέλια των εσφαλμένων αντιλήψεων τους και να αμφισβητούν την εγκυρότητα εκείνων που έχουν αποβεί δυσλειτουργικές, ούτως ώστε να διαμορφώνουν μια περισσότερο βιώσιμη εικόνα του κόσμου και της θέσης τους μέσα σε αυτόν. Θεωρεί αυτήν τη διεργασία ως μείζονα αναγκαιότητα για τους ενήλικες, προκειμένου να απεγκλωβίζονται από αποπροσανατολιστικά διλήμματα που επιβάλλονται από εξωτερικές συνθήκες, όπως η αλλαγή εργασίας ή οι ετεροκαθορισμένες ερμηνείες κοινωνικών ρόλων, όπως η θέση της γυναίκας στην κοινωνία κτλ.

Στα πλαίσια της μετασχηματίζουσας μάθησης ο εκπαιδευτής καλείται να ασκήσει ρόλο διευκολυντικό και καθοδηγητικό, συμβουλευτικό και συνεργατικό. Διερευνά τις ανάγκες κάθε μέλους της ομάδας, διαλέγεται μαζί τους, προωθεί τη συνεργασία και δημιουργεί συνθήκες ασφάλειας. Στηριζόμενος στις προσωπικές αξίες, παραδοχές και πεποιθήσεις των εκπαιδευομένων του, καθορίζει τους στόχους του γνωστικού αντικειμένου και της χρησιμότητάς του στην καθημερινή ζωή. Η όποια διεργασία θετικής αλλαγής οριοθετείται από το εκπαιδευτικό πλαίσιο, του οποίου η παρουσία κρίνεται ως απολύτως απαραίτητη, ώστε να γνωρίζει η ομάδα εξ αρχής μέχρι που μπορεί να φθάσουν τα όρια της ελευθερίας της. Χρήσιμες εκπαιδευτικές τεχνικές που συμβάλλουν σε αυτό το σκοπό είναι ο διάλογος και οι εκμαιευτικές ερωτήσεις, η εργασία σε ομάδες, οι ιστορίες ζωής, η τήρηση ημερολογίου, οι εκπαιδευτικές επισκέψεις, καθώς και διάφορες ενεργητικές τεχνικές όπως η μελέτη περίπτωσης, το παίξιμο ρόλων, η προσομοίωση, η επίλυση προβλημάτων, ο καταιγισμός ιδεών κτλ.

Β’ Μέρος

1. Είδος Εκπαιδευτικών Τεχνικών και Αξιολόγηση του τρόπου εφαρμογής τους στην εκπαιδευομένη ομάδα.

Βασικός στόχος κάθε εκπαίδευσης που απευθύνεται σε ενήλικες είναι η επιλογή των κατάλληλων εκπαιδευτικών τεχνικών που προάγουν την ενεργητική μάθηση, την ευρετική πορεία προς τη γνώση και τη συμμετοχικότητα. Υλοποιείται δηλαδή η ανάγκη του ενήλικα για αυτοκαθορισμό και ενεργή συμμετοχή στη διαδικασία μάθησης.

Γενικά, η εκπαιδεύτρια της συγκεκριμένης μικροδιδασκαλίας δεν κάνει εκτεταμένη χρήση των ενεργητικών εκπαιδευτικών τεχνικών και των συμμετοχικών διαδικασιών, αλλά ακολουθεί, θα λέγαμε, μια ήπια μορφή του παραδοσιακού τρόπου διδασκαλίας που εστιάζει στην πρακτική εξάσκηση της θεωρίας. Ίσως σε αυτό να συμβάλουν και οι ίδιοι οι εκπαιδευόμενοι στην ξένη γλώσσα, οι οποίοι έχουν συνηθίσει στον παραδοσιακό τρόπο διδασκαλίας και δυσκολεύονται να οικειοποιηθούν την επικοινωνιακή μέθοδο των σύγχρονων προγραμμάτων γλωσσομάθειας.

Η εργασία σε υποομάδες είναι η τεχνική που χρησιμοποιείται σχεδόν πάντα στη συγκεκριμένη μικροδιδασκαλία. Οι τρεις υποομάδες που προκύπτουν (αποτελούμενη από 3 άτομα η κάθε μια) διευκολύνονται έτσι στο να εκπονήσουν με μεγαλύτερη αποτελεσματικότητα τις ασκήσεις που τους δίνονται, και οι οποίες αναφέρονται στους τρόπους παροχής οδηγιών και κατευθύνσεων από και προς κάποιο γεωγραφικό σημείο στα αγγλικά. Μετά το πέρας της άσκησης η κάθε υποομάδα ανακοινώνει, δια του εκπροσώπου της, το αποτέλεσμα της εργασίας, ενώ η εκπαιδεύτρια συντονίζει τη συζήτηση μεταξύ των ομάδων, τις ερωτήσεις και τις απαντήσεις, εμπλέκοντας με αυτόν τον τρόπο τους εκπαιδευομένους σε ένα δημιουργικό διάλογο, ο οποίος, ωστόσο, δεν είναι αυθόρμητος και δεν ενισχύεται κατάλληλα, ώστε να εκφρασθούν οι προσωπικές απόψεις όλων των εκπαιδευομένων - απαλλαγμένοι από το στενό πλαίσιο της άσκησης. Παρόλα αυτά, με αυτές τις δύο τεχνικές (εργασία σε ομάδες και συζήτηση/ ερωτήσεις-απαντήσεις) αποφεύγεται ο κίνδυνος κόπωσης, ενώ παράλληλα κρατά ενεργό το ενδιαφέρον των συμμετεχόντων.

Η πρακτική άσκηση είναι επίσης μια τεχνική που χρησιμοποιείται κατά κόρον στη συγκεκριμένη διδασκαλία. Μέσω αυτής οι εκπαιδευόμενοι ενθαρρύνονται για την επίλυση προβλημάτων (π.χ να κατευθύνουν σωστά κάποιον τουρίστα ή έναν αγγλόφωνο φίλο τους να μεταβεί από το ένα σημείο της πόλης στο άλλο, ή να βρει το ταχυδρομείο ή την τράπεζα), ενώ ταυτόχρονα ενισχύεται η ανάπτυξη της κριτικής τους σκέψης.

Από την άλλη, ωστόσο, η εκπαιδεύτρια υστερεί σημαντικά στη χρήση άλλων, εξίσου σημαντικών ενεργητικών τεχνικών όπως το παιχνίδι ρόλων, οι προσομοιώσεις, και ο καταιγισμός ιδεών - μέσω των οποίων οι εκπαιδευόμενοι μπορούν κάλλιστα να ασκηθούν σε καθημερινές καταστάσεις (όπως στην περίπτωση μας στην παροχή οδηγιών και πληροφοριών στα αγγλικά), και οι οποίες τεχνικές στοχεύουν στην ενίσχυση του αυτοσυναισθήματος των συμμετεχόντων. Αυτές οι τεχνικές είναι ιδιαίτερα λειτουργικές στο πλαίσιο της εκμάθησης της ξένης γλώσσας. Πρόκειται για ένα σημείο απόλυτης σύγκλισης ανάμεσα στις αρχές διδακτικής των ξένων γλωσσών και στις αρχές που πρεσβεύει η εκπαίδευση ενηλίκων (Σηφάκις, 2004).

2. Το Είδος των βασικών προϋποθέσεων της Ενήλικης Μάθησης που τηρούνται ή δεν τηρούνται στη συγκεκριμένη Μικροδιδασκαλία.

Για να μπορεί ο σύγχρονος εκπαιδευτής ενηλίκων να ανταποκριθεί στις σύνθετες απαιτήσεις του έργου του, χρειάζεται να διαθέτει συγκεκριμένα προσόντα και να εφαρμόζει μια σειρά από βασικούς κανόνες που διέπουν την εκπαίδευση ενηλίκων, όπως π.χ να νοιάζεται και να κατανοεί τις ανάγκες και τις προσδοκίες των εκπαιδευομένων, να σέβεται τα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά της προσωπικότητάς τους, να αντιλαμβάνεται τους ρυθμούς και τις δυνατότητές τους. Σε γενικές γραμμές θα λέγαμε ότι η εκπαιδεύτρια τηρεί συχνά τους κανόνες αυτούς, αφού δείχνει να κατανοεί τις δυνατότητες του τμήματος της με το να χρησιμοποιεί αντίστοιχης δυσκολίας ασκήσεις. Ακόμη και η ίδια η επιλογή του βασικού στόχου της διδασκαλίας της, δηλαδή η σωστή και άνετη παροχή πληροφοριών και υποδείξεων για την μετάβαση κάποιου από το ένα σημείο της πόλης σε κάποιο άλλο, φαίνεται να ανταποκρίνεται στις επιδιώξεις και στις ανάγκες των εκπαιδευομένων να επικοινωνούν δηλαδή αποτελεσματικά και να δίνουν οδηγίες στην αγγλική γλώσσα.

Ωστόσο, αν και συντονίζει σωστά τις υποομάδες και μεθοδεύει την οργάνωση των μαθησιακών δραστηριοτήτων, εντούτοις δεν αφήνει χώρο πρωτοβουλίας στους εκπαιδευόμενους και δεν τους υποκινεί να συμβάλουν ενεργητικά σε όλες τις φάσεις της μαθησιακής διαδικασίας. Αν και προωθεί τη συνεργατικότητα μεταξύ των εκπαιδευομένων, δεν κυριαρχεί ο ουσιαστικός διάλογος, ούτε ενισχύεται η αμοιβαιότητα, αφού οι εκπαιδευόμενοι φαίνεται να ενδιαφέρονται απλά για την διεκπεραίωση της δουλειάς που τους ανατέθηκε.

3. Οι σχέσεις μεταξύ εκπαιδευομένων και εκπαιδεύτριας, το μαθησιακό υλικό και ο ρόλος της εκπαιδεύτριας

Βασικό χρέος του εκπαιδευτή ενηλίκων είναι να αντιμετωπίζει με ενσυναίσθηση τους εκπαιδευομένους, δηλαδή να αντιλαμβάνεται τις αντιδράσεις τους και τις στάσεις τους. Στην προκειμένη περίπτωση αυτό φαίνεται να επιτυγχάνεται ως ένα βαθμό. Οι σχέσεις των εμπλεκομένων μερών φαινομενικά διέπονται από συνεργατικότητα και εμπιστοσύνη. Οι εκπαιδευόμενοι ανταποκρίνονται θετικά στις υποδείξεις της εκπαιδεύτριας και εναρμονίζονται με τις παρατηρήσεις της.

Ωστόσο, η σχέση αυτή μεταξύ εκπαιδευτή και εκπαιδευομένων κινδυνεύει να μείνει σε καθαρά τυπικά πλαίσια, αφού δεν υπάρχει αμοιβαίος σχεδιασμός των δραστηριοτήτων, οι εκπαιδευόμενοι μοιάζουν να παραμένουν ουδέτεροι και απλά να λύνουν τις ασκήσεις που μόνη της η εκπαιδεύτρια επέλεξε. Η εκπαιδεύτρια τείνει να λειτουργεί κάποιες φορές ως αυθεντία και όχι ως εμψυχώτρια και διευκολυντής της μαθησιακής διαδικασίας.

Τα μαθησιακό υλικό που χρησιμοποιείται κατά τη μάθηση δημιουργεί τις πρώτες εντυπώσεις στους εκπαιδευόμενους και γι αυτό έχει ιδιαίτερη σημασία να παρέχεται από την αρχή για την ανεμπόδιστη διεξαγωγή δραστηριοτήτων που καλύπτουν τις ανάγκες των εκπαιδευομένων.

Σε αυτή τη βάση η εκπαιδεύτρια χρησιμοποιεί συχνά τον πίνακα κιμωλίας, ώστε να ενεργοποιήσει την όραση των εκπαιδευομένων, ενώ παράλληλα μοιράζει έντυπα με ασκήσεις που εξυπηρετούν και ενισχύουν την απομνημονευτική ικανότητα των εκπαιδευομένων. Παράλληλα όμως η εκπαιδεύτρια πολλαπλασιάζει τα αισθητήρια ερεθίσματα των μαθητών της με τη χρήση διαφανειών, γεγονός που αυξάνει το ενδιαφέρον τους και αποφέρει εξαιρετικά μαθησιακά αποτελέσματα.

Συνοψίζοντας τα παραπάνω, καταλαβαίνει κάποιος ότι ο ρόλος της εκπαιδεύτριας είναι μονοδιάστατος. Η ίδια επηρεασμένη από το πλαίσιο στο οποίο ζει και περιστοιχίζεται, περιορίζει το έργο της στην απλή μεταβίβαση γνώσεων στους εκπαιδευόμενους, χωρίς ουσιαστική διάθεση επαναδιαπραγμάτευσης και συνεχούς επαναπροσδιορισμού. Ακολουθεί την πεπατημένη οδό της “αφομοιωτικής” μάθησης, δηλαδή τον τύπο μάθησης που προκύπτει όταν οι εκπαιδευόμενοι αποκτούν απλώς νέες πληροφορίες που μπορούν να χωρέσουν εύκολα στις προϋπάρχουσες δομές γνώσης τους.

Βιβλιογραφία

Eitington J (1996) The winning trainer Houston: Gulf Publishing Company

Mezirow J. (1990) “Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood”, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco

Noye D- Piveteau J (2002) Πρακτικός οδηγός του εκπαιδευτή, Αθήνα, Μεταίχμιο

Silberman M (1998) Active Training The Open University Press
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